If you have been reading about PPARδ agonist and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2025-08-03. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that regulates gene expression related to fatty acid oxidation, glucose homeostasis, and mitochondrial function. GW501516 binds to this receptor with high affinity and activates downstream signaling in skeletal muscle and other tissues. Animal studies reported increased endurance and altered fuel preference, but human data remain limited and inconsistent. The precise relationship between receptor activation and observed physiological changes is still an area of active investigation. Researchers have also examined whether the compound affects inflammation or cell proliferation. No approved therapeutic indication exists for cardarine.
In laboratory settings, cardarine is studied as a tool compound for probing PPARδ biology. Published experiments often use cell cultures, rodent models, or isolated tissues. Some investigations focus on metabolic effects, while others assess potential risks such as carcinogenicity observed in long-term animal studies. Because human trials are sparse, most knowledge comes from preclinical work and adverse event reports. Scientific literature frequently notes the gap between animal findings and human outcomes. The compound is not a dietary supplement and is not intended for human consumption.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound developed in the 1990s through research collaborations involving GlaxoSmithKline. It belongs to a class of molecules known as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonists. Early studies explored its effects on lipid metabolism and energy expenditure in animal models. The compound was never approved as a human medicine, and clinical development was discontinued. In the years since, it has appeared in fitness and bodybuilding communities as a performance-enhancing substance. Regulatory agencies classify it as an unapproved drug.
Regulatory bodies treat GW501516 as a prohibited substance in competitive sport. The World Anti-Doping Agency added it to the prohibited list, and it falls under classes covering metabolic modulators and hormone-related agents. It is not approved by drug regulators for human use, and it is not a lawful dietary supplement. Products sold under the cardarine name may contain unlisted ingredients or different compounds. Because no approved product exists, quality and identity are not guaranteed by pharmaceutical manufacturing standards.
Cardarine is a common name for the investigational chemical GW501516, also written GW-1516. It was developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist for metabolic conditions such as dyslipidemia. Early research focused on lipid handling and energy use in skeletal muscle and other tissues. The compound was never approved as a medicine. In public discussion, it is often grouped with performance-enhancing substances, although its receptor target differs from that of anabolic steroids or selective androgen receptor modulators. Regulatory and health authorities have issued warnings about its use.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Unique identifier for the compound. |
| Chemical class | PPARδ agonist | Synthetic ligand for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta. |
| Appearance | White to off-white solid | Typical form of research-grade material. |
| Solubility | Soluble in DMSO and ethanol | Poorly soluble in water. |
| Typical storage | -20°C | Recommended for long-term storage of stock solutions. |
Published human data are sparse and mostly come from early-phase trials. Those studies examined short-term changes in lipids, glucose, and exercise capacity, but they were not large enough to establish efficacy or long-term safety. Some animal experiments reported increased running endurance, yet such findings do not prove a performance benefit in people. Anti-doping laboratories detect GW501516 and its metabolites in urine or blood using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Detection windows depend on dose, sample type, and individual metabolism. The method is sensitive enough to identify trace residues in tested samples.
Laboratory handling focuses on identity, purity, and stability. Reference standards are typically stored cold and dry, protected from light, because solutions can degrade over time. Analytical checks may use high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection or mass spectrometry. Impurities and related substances can be separated chromatographically and compared with a known standard. Because cardarine is not an approved drug, compendial monographs are absent, and laboratories often rely on in-house methods. Reported purity varies among unregulated products and should not be assumed from a label.
Products sold as cardarine have been found to contain incorrect compounds, variable amounts, or no active ingredient at all. Independent testing is required to verify identity and purity. Common analytical approaches include high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance for structural confirmation. These methods can distinguish GW501516 from related PPAR agonists and from unrelated steroids. For regulators and researchers, such verification is central to interpreting both biological results and adverse event reports.
Cardarine is prohibited in competitive sport under the World Anti-Doping Agency code, where it is classified as a metabolic modulator. It is not approved as a prescription medicine in the United States, European Union, or other major markets. Regulatory action has focused on its presence in sports and in products marketed as research chemicals. Because it has no accepted medical indication, supply is often unregulated. This status creates legal and safety uncertainties for anyone who encounters the substance.
Detection of GW501516 in biological samples generally relies on liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is a common matrix in anti-doping analysis, while blood or plasma may be used in research settings. Sample preparation can involve enzymatic hydrolysis, protein precipitation, or solid-phase extraction before instrumental analysis. Because the compound undergoes metabolism, assays may target the parent molecule, one or more metabolites, or both. Detection windows are not fixed; they depend on factors such as dose, route, individual metabolism, and assay sensitivity. Reference standards are required for accurate identification and quantification.
Handling and quality assessment of cardarine reference material follow general laboratory practices for poorly characterized compounds. It typically appears as a white to off-white powder and is sparingly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide and ethanol. Storage recommendations usually specify a cool, dry, dark place, with long-term storage at low temperature and desiccation. Purity may be checked by high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, while identity is confirmed by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance. No pharmacopeial monograph exists, so reported purity and stability depend on the supplier’s methods.
Published studies have examined GW501516 in animal models of obesity, insulin resistance, and exercise endurance. Early human trials reportedly ended, and development was discontinued after preclinical findings raised concerns about cancer in some rodent studies. Regulatory agencies have not approved cardarine for any medical use. Its availability through non-pharmaceutical channels raises questions about identity, purity, and legal status that are separate from its laboratory pharmacology. Those questions are often addressed through analytical testing rather than assumptions about product labels.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, also GW-1516, a synthetic compound developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) agonist. It belongs to a class of agents that modulate gene transcription related to lipid and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical and early clinical research for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not progress to approved therapeutic use. Its name appears in fitness and sports contexts despite not being approved as a drug.
== Honours and legacy == The scientific work of Leonidas Zervas had a global resonance and his contribution was recognised by multiple awards throughout his life. In 1960 he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Basel on the occasion of the university's 500th anniversary, upon recommendation of Hans Erlenmeyer and Nobel laureate Tadeusz Reichstein. In 1969 he was bestowed honorary membership of the American Society of Biological Chemists. In 1976 he was conferred the Order of Scientific Merit (1st class) by the Socialist Republic of Romania. In the same year Zervas was made Foreign Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, an indication of the great respect for his work in the Eastern Bloc, too. The Max-Bergmann-Kreis company of German peptide chemists planned to present Zervas with the first Max Bergmann golden medal for peptide chemistry in 1980, but his sudden death necessitated a posthumous award ceremony. In honour of Zervas, a commemorative bust has been unveiled in his birthtown Megalopolis in 1991 and the main conference hall of the National Hellenic Research Foundation is called the "Leonidas Zervas amphitheatre". The European Peptide Society has established the Leonidas Zervas Award "in commemoration of his outstanding contributions to peptide science", awarded biennially since 1988. The award is given to the "scientist who has made the most outstanding contributions to the chemistry, biochemistry and/or biology of peptides in the five years preceding the date of selection".
Geranyl diphosphate synthase (GPPS) first catalyzes the reaction of IPP and DMAPP into geranyl diphosphate. (−)-limonene synthase (LS) catalyzes the cyclization of geranyl diphosphate to (−)-limonene. (−)-Limonene-3-hydroxylase (L3OH), using O2 and then nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) catalyzes the allylic hydroxylation of (−)-limonene at the 3 position to (−)-trans-isopiperitenol. (−)-trans-Isopiperitenol dehydrogenase (iPD) further oxidizes the hydroxyl group on the 3 position using NAD+ to make (−)-isopiperitenone. (−)-Isopiperitenone reductase (iPR) then reduces the double bond between carbons 1 and 2 using NADPH to form (+)-cis-isopulegone. (+)-cis-Isopulegone isomerase (iPI) then isomerizes the remaining double bond to form (+)-pulegone. (+)-Pulegone reductase (PR) reduces this double bond using NADPH to form (−)-menthone. (−)-Menthone reductase (MR) then reduces the carbonyl group using NADPH to form (−)-menthol.
Prephenate is oxidatively decarboxylated with retention of the hydroxyl group to give p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate, which is transaminated using glutamate as the nitrogen source to give tyrosine and α-ketoglutarate.
Eptifibatide is used to reduce the risk of acute cardiac ischemic events (death and/or myocardial infarction) in patients with unstable angina or non-ST-segment-elevation (e.g., non-Q-wave) myocardial infarction (i.e., non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes) both in patients who are to receive non surgery (conservative) medical treatment and those undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). The drug is usually applied together with aspirin or clopidogrel and (low molecular weight or unfractionated) heparin. Additionally, the usual supportive treatment consisting of applications of nitrates, beta-blockers, opioid analgesics and/or benzodiazepines should be employed as indicated. Angiographic evaluation and other intensive diagnostic procedures may be considered a first line task before initiating therapy with eptifibatide. The drug should exclusively be used in hospitalized patients both because of the serious degree of patients' illness and because of the possible side-effects of eptifibatide.
Sometimes distinct from the modern periods themselves, the terms "modernity" and "modernism" refer to a new way of thinking, distinct from previous ways of thinking such as medieval thinking. "Postmodernism", coined in 1949, describes a movement in art rather than a period of history, and is usually applied to arts, but not to any events of recent history. This changed, when postmodernity was coined to describe major changes in the 1960s in economy, society, culture, and philosophy. These terms stem from European history. In worldwide usage, such as in China, India, and Islam, the terms are applied in a different way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age of Discovery.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
ImmTACs (Immune mobilising monoclonal T-cell receptors Against Cancer) are a class of bispecific biological drug being investigated for the treatment of cancer and viral infections which combines engineered cancer-recognizing TCRs with immune activating complexes. ImmTACs target cancerous or virally infected cells through binding human leukocyte antigen (HLA) presented peptide antigens and redirect the host's cytotoxic T cells to recognise and kill them. ImmTACs are fusion proteins that combine an engineered T Cell Receptor (TCR) based targeting system with a single chain antibody fragment (scFv) effector function. TCRs, like antibodies, constitute an important antigen recognition system within the immune system; but, whereas antibodies are restricted to targeting cell surface or secreted proteins TCRs can recognise peptides derived from intracellular targets presented by human leukocyte antigen (HLA). Naturally occurring TCRs are low affinity (0.18-387 micromolar range) 2-chain membrane receptors expressed on the surface of T cells. To produce stable, soluble, high affinity TCRs capable of being used as diagnostics and therapeutics the two TCR protein chains are stabilised through the introduction of a novel disulphide bond between the 2 constant domains and the affinity increased 1-5 million fold to low picomolar values through phage display affinity maturation. To provide the soluble, affinity enhanced TCR with a biological effector function the beta chain of the TCR is fused to an scFv antibody fragment specific for the CD3 T cell co-receptor, creating an ImmTAC.
. As of 1994, limited information existed on the acute toxicity of carbonyl sulfide in humans and in animals. High concentrations (above 1000 ppm) can cause sudden collapse, convulsions, and death from respiratory paralysis. Occasional fatalities have been reported, practically without local irritation or olfactory warning. In tests with rats, 50% animals died when exposed to 1400 ppm of COS for 90 minutes, or at 3000 ppm for 9 minutes. Limited studies with laboratory animals also suggest that continued inhalation of low concentrations (around 50 ppm for up to 12 weeks) does not affect the lungs or the heart. Carbonyl sulfide is a potential alternative fumigant to methyl bromide and phosphine. In some cases, however, residues on the grain result in flavours that are unacceptable to consumers, such as in barley used for brewing.
To address these challenges, the Pittsburgh Model of Function deconstructs 'function' into five meanings to describe the different properties that are acquired by a locus undergoing de novo gene birth: Expression, Capacities, Interactions, Physiological Implications, and Evolutionary Implications. It is generally accepted that a genuine de novo gene is expressed in at least some context, allowing selection to operate, and many studies use evidence of expression as an inclusion criterion in defining de novo genes. The expression of sequences at the mRNA level may be confirmed individually through techniques such as quantitative PCR, or globally through RNA sequencing (RNA-seq). Similarly, expression at the protein level can be determined with high confidence for individual proteins using techniques such as mass spectrometry or western blotting, while ribosome profiling (Ribo-seq) provides a global survey of translation in a given sample. Ideally, to confirm a gene arose de novo, a lack of expression of the syntenic region of outgroup species would also be demonstrated. Genetic approaches to detect a specific phenotype or change in fitness upon disruption of a particular sequence, are useful to infer function. Other experimental approaches, including screens for protein-protein and/or genetic interactions, may also be employed to confirm a biological effect for a particular de novo ORF. Evolutionary approaches may be employed to infer the existence of a molecular function from computationally derived signatures of selection.
Cannibalism among flocks is highly variable and when it is not problematic, then mortalities among production systems are similar. Opponents of beak trimming state that the practice reduces problem pecking by minor amounts compared to the trauma, injury, and harm done to the entire flock by beak trimming. Several countries have banned the practice, including Denmark (2013), Finland (1986), Germany (2017), the Netherlands (2019), Norway (1974) and Sweden (1988); analysts expect other European countries such as the UK to follow in the near future. Alternatives to beak trimming include enrichment or providing more space for the birds.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
"I am Shutruk-Nahhunte, son of Hallutush-Inshushinak, beloved servant of the god Inshushinak, king of Anshan and Susa, who has enlarged the kingdom, who takes care of the lands of Elam, the lord of the land of Elam. When the god Inshusinak gave me the order, I defeated Sippar. I took the stele of Naram-Sin and carried it off, bringing it to the land of Elam. For Inshushinak, my god, I set it as an offering."
Dichloroarcyriaflavin A synthase (EC 1.13.12.17) is an enzyme with systematic name dichlorochromopyrrolate,NADH:oxygen 2,5-oxidoreductase (dichloroarcyriaflavin A-forming). This enzyme catalyses the following overall chemical reaction:
=== Rupture of the prosthetic breast === Because the prosthetic breast is an inorganic foreign object in the body of the woman, her immune system defensively responds by encapsulating the breast prosthesis (saline solution or silicone gel) in a hard-shell capsule of fibrous collagen. In time, the body's continual thickening of the fibrous capsule exerts mechanical compression forces upon the prosthetic breast that cause two ruptures that will leak filler-material: (i) the intracapsular rupture of the prosthesis, wherein the leaked filler-material remains within the fibrous capsule that contains the ruptured prosthetic breast, and (ii) the extracapsular rupture of the prosthesis, wherein the filler-material leaks out of the ruptured fibrous capsule and into the implant-pocket, from where that leaked filler-material will migrate into the thorax of the woman. As a medical-device failure, the rupture of a breast implant usually is not immediately noticed by or is evident to the woman, because the prosthetic filler-material — saline solution or silicone gel — is biologically inert and is not absorbed by her body, and thus causes her no immediate sickness. The migration of the filler-material that has leaked from the breast-implant into the woman's thorax usually provokes medical complications in the pectoral area (the bust) area and in the axillary area (the armpit), and occur are as granulomas (inflamed nodules) and as lymphadenopathy (enlarged lymph nodes in the armpit).
The ionization efficiency of DESI is complex and depends on several parameters such as, surface effects, electrospray parameters, chemical parameters and geometric parameters. Surface effects include chemical composition, temperature and electric potential applied. Electrospray parameters include electrospray voltage, gas and liquid flow rates. Chemical parameters refers to the sprayed solvent composition, e.g. addition of NaCl. Geometric parameters are α, β, d1 and d2 (see figure on the right). Furthermore, α and d1 affect the ionization efficiency, while β and d2 affect the collection efficiency. Results of a test performed on a variety of molecules to determine optimal α and d1 values show that there are two sets of molecules: high molecular weight (proteins, peptides, oligosaccharide etc.) and low molecular weight (diazo dye, stereoids, caffeine, nitroaromatics etc.). The optimal conditions for the high molecular weight group are high incident angles (70–90°) and short d1 distances (1–3 mm). The optimal conditions for the low molecular weight group are the opposite, low incident angles (35–50°) and long d1 distances (7–10 mm). These test results indicate that each group of molecules has a different ionization mechanism; described in detail in the Principle of operation section. The sprayer tip and the surface holder are both attached to a 3D moving stage which allow to select specific values for the four geometric parameters: α, β, d1 and d2.
Lee (1992), former Associated Press bureau chief in Pyongyang and Seoul Jori Finkel (1992), art reporter for The New York Times and Los Angeles Times Olivier Knox (1992), chief Washington correspondent for SiriusXM and former president of the White House Correspondents' Association Jim Frederick (1993), author and journalist Russell Gold (1993), journalist for The Wall Street Journal and Pulitzer Prize-finalist Michael Rothfeld (1993), journalist for The Wall Street Journal and winner of the 2019 Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting Brad Stone (1993), journalist for Bloomberg Business Anne Kornblut (1994), correspondent for The Washington Post, winner of the 2014 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service Joshua Prager (1994), journalist and author who writes on historical secrets Jodi Kantor (1996), writer and former editor on culture and politics for The New York Times, winner of the 2018 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service Harriet Ryan (1996), journalist and winner of the 2019 Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting Robin Shulman (1996), freelance journalist Kate Kelly (1997), journalist for The New York Times Nicholas Kulish (1997), Berlin bureau chief for The New York Times and novelist Patrick Radden Keefe (1999), writer and investigative journalist David Epstein (2002), investigative reporter at ProPublica and author of the New York Times bestseller The Sports Gene Nick Schifrin (2002), Al Jazeera America's Middle East correspondent Ben Casselman (2003), economics reporter at The New York Times Jonah Lehrer (2003), former writer for The New Yorker discharged for falsifying quotes Poppy Harlow (2005), correspondent for CNN Sarah Maslin Nir (2005), investigative journalist for The New York Times Marc Tracy (2007), journalist for The New York Times, recipient of a 2011 National Magazine Award and a 2012 National Jewish Book Award Linette Lopez (2008), journalist for Business Insider involved in the December 15, 2022 Twitter suspensions Nellie Bowles (2010), technology journalist for The New York Times Cecilia Reyes (2015), winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting in 2022
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic PPARδ agonist developed for research. It has not been approved as a medication in any country. It is classified as an unapproved drug and a prohibited substance in sport.
No. Cardarine is not an anabolic steroid; it belongs to a different chemical class that targets PPARδ. Steroids act primarily through androgen receptors, while cardarine acts through a nuclear receptor involved in metabolism.
Some rodent studies reported increased endurance and changes in fat metabolism after cardarine exposure. Long-term studies in animals also raised concerns about cancer in certain tissues. Human trial data are limited, so these findings cannot be directly translated to people.
No. Cardarine is a PPARδ agonist, while selective androgen receptor modulators act on androgen receptors. The two classes differ in receptor target and downstream effects.